Feminization of poverty: Black single mothers in the U.S.
Women are the world’s poor. Feminisation of poverty refers to the increasing proportion of women living in poverty and the disadvantage women have in comparison to their male counterparts in the same situation (Chant, 2014). This disparity is observed in black single mothers in the U.S. It is not just a social inequality; but a tangible representation of systemic, interrelated injustices.
Systemic structures in the U.S. significantly contribute to maintaining poverty among Black women through various mechanisms rooted in historical and contemporary racism. The intersectionality of these systemic factors creates a cycle of poverty that is difficult to escape, as Black women often lack access to the same resources and opportunities available to White families. For example, the legacy of slavery continues to impact black families, particularly in southern states (where historically there have been more enslaved people). This relationship suggests that the legacy of slavery promotes this racial inequality in poverty. Consequently, this analysis aims to navigate the intersection between black women in the USA and the poverty they experience. It aspires to divulge this systemic oppression and explore its causalities, reflecting on structures of power and privileges.
Such structures can be perceived when focusing on “family structure” as the main reason for poverty. Stating that single motherhood is the cause of poverty can promote the misconception that black poverty is due to individual choices rather than systemic issues, such as racism and economic inequality (Baker and O’Connell, 2022).
In truth, poverty has always disproportionately affected black women in the U.S. due to a combination of class and racial factors. In 1981, 52.9% of Black female householders lived in poverty, compared to 27.4% of white female householders. Showing a significant disparity in economic stability between these groups. And it is not just about female householders. 67.7% of Black children in female-headed households were living in poverty, while the comparable rate for white children in similar households was 42.8%.
The economic impact of marital disruption is particularly tough for Black women; studies indicate that 55 to 60% of black women were poor at some point after these disruptions, with 70% experiencing poverty or relative poverty. This situation is worsened by the fact that Black women are more likely to be the sole support of their families, as the number of Black families headed by women has increased significantly, rising from 30% in 1970 to 47.5% in 1981 (Burnham, 1985).
Intersectionality needs to be postulated when analyzing the factors contributing to poverty. While black households face increasing poverty compared to their white counterparts, it is black women who face more discrimination and lack of opportunities. This translates to poorer single black women households. This double burden faced by black single-mother households is illustrated by their bottom position in society’s income earners.
Income growth does not benefit everyone equally. In the U.S., for every $1 increase in income, white households gained $5.19 in wealth, while black households only gained $0.69 over 25 years. Such a sizable difference shows systemic barriers are preventing black households from building wealth (Shapiro, Meschede, and Osoro, 2013).
In 2010, unemployment rates also reflected these disparities, with black mothers facing the highest unemployment at 13.2%, compared to 8.3% for White mothers. The impact of these employment trends is starkly illustrated in poverty rates; nearly half of Black (46.2%) single mothers lived in poverty, compared to 33.7% of white mothers. (Damaske, Bratter and Frech, 2017).
Some of the factors contributing to poverty and racial wealth disparities in the U.S. are labour market disparities. Black women (including single mothers) are often concentrated in low-wage jobs without benefits, limiting their ability to build wealth. Discrimination in hiring and wage gaps create tremendous financial instability. “Sizable fractions of women experience discrimination and harassment, including discrimination in health care (18%), equal pay/promotions (41%), and higher education (20%)” (Steel, Fisher et al., 2019).
A big part of this economic inequality is “redlining,” a historical practice of systematically denying or limiting resources to residents of particular neighbourhoods mainly based on race. The term originated from maps created by the U.S. government during the 1930s. Redlining reinforced racial segregation, isolating Black communities in under-resourced areas—further perpetuating economic inequality.
This institutional discrimination severely restricted access to credit and homeownership for marginalised communities. When a neighbourhood was selected, they classified them as high-risk areas for lending. This institutional discrimination severely restricted access to credit and homeownership. The lack of access to credit led to disinvestment in Black neighbourhoods, reducing the opportunity to accumulate wealth (Appel and Nickerson, 2016).
With this lack of resources, the schooling system is no better. Without access to quality education, black children in redlined districts often inherit the economic disadvantages of their parents, perpetuating cycles of poverty. Children in underfunded schools are less likely to graduate high school, attend college, or secure well-paying jobs. These disadvantages limit their “upward mobility” and exacerbate their risk of remaining in poverty.
Furthermore, redlined neighbourhoods historically lacked investment in businesses and infrastructure, leaving few local job opportunities. With no job opportunities, women are being forced to commute. The combination of low wages, high childcare costs, and transportation expenses means Black single mothers are more likely to live paycheck-to-paycheck, with little to no savings or financial security. The increased time children spend in daycare raises childcare expenses. For single mothers with limited incomes, this financial strain is gigantic, often consuming a significant portion of their earnings (Appel and Nickerson, 2016).
The consequences of black poverty are compelling. Poverty in Black single-parent households has far-reaching ramifications that impact various aspects of life. Children in these households often face educational challenges, inadequate childcare, and health issues–including inadequate nutrition and higher rates of asthma. Furthermore, the stress of financial instability can contribute to mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. Social and emotional development may be more arduous for them, with children experiencing behavioural problems and poor social functioning (O’Hara, 1992). This economic stress can affect parenting behaviours, making it challenging for single-parent Black mothers to provide a stable and supportive environment for their children (American Psychological Association, 2024).
The systemic feminisation of poverty in black single-mother households in the U.S. is still persistent. This ongoing poverty in Black single-mother households in the U.S. highlights the systemic inequities rooted in historical and contemporary racism. These families face significant economic challenges, which collectively perpetuate this cycle of poverty. Addressing these issues requires comprehensive policy changes and specific help to remove the obstacles stopping Black single mothers from achieving financial stability and moving up socially. Only through such efforts can we hope to break the cycle of poverty and create a more equitable society for all.
List of references
American Psychological Association (2024) ‘Exploring the mental health effects of poverty, hunger, and homelessness on children and teens’. Available at: https://www.apa.org/topics/socioeconomic-status/poverty-hunger-homelessness-children.
Appel, I. and Nickerson, J. (2016) ‘Pockets of poverty: The long-term effects of redlining’, SSRN Electronic Journal. doi: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2852856.
Baker, R.S. and O’Connell, H.A. (2022) ‘Structural racism, family structure, and Black–White inequality: The differential impact of the legacy of slavery on poverty among single mother and married parent households’, Journal of Marriage and Family, 84(5). doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12837.
Burnham, L. (1985) ‘Has poverty been feminized in Black America?’, The Black Scholar, 16(2), pp. 14–24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.1985.11658586.
Chant, S. (2014) ‘Exploring the “feminisation of poverty” in relation to women’s work and home-based enterprise in slums of the global South’, International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 6(3), pp. 296–316. doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/ijge-09-2012-0035.
Damaske, S., Bratter, J.L. and Frech, A. (2017) ‘Single mother families and employment, race, and poverty in changing economic times’, Social Science Research, 62, pp. 120–133. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.08.008.
O’Hara, M.W. (1992) ‘Depression runs in families: The social context of risk and resilience in children of depressed mothers’, Clinical Psychology Review, 12(5), pp. 564–565. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(92)90072-g.
Shapiro, T., Meschede, T. and Osoro, S. (2013) The roots of the widening racial wealth gap: Explaining the Black-White economic divide. Available at: https://heller.brandeis.edu/iere/pdfs/racial-wealth-equity/racial-wealth-gap/roots-widening-racial-wealth-gap.pdf.
SteelFisher, G.K., Findling, M.G., Bleich, S.N., Casey, L.S., Blendon, R.J., Benson, J.M., Sayde, J.M. and Miller, C. (2019) ‘Gender discrimination in the United States: Experiences of women’, Health Services Research, 54(S2), pp. 1442–1453. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13217.